The Idea of Prehistory:
A Preview of a New Book
Norman Simms
In a new book I am finishing about the idea of
prehistory my argument turns on something that may upset professional
archaeologists, anthropologists and prehistorians, namely, that the sense of
prehistory is not chronological, but psychohistorical, that is, a state of mind.
The idea is that at certain points in the life of individuals, small groups and
whole nations they confront shocking experiences, trauma, which can cause both
an existential and an epistemological crisis. Things do not make sense any longer
and (as W.B. Yeats put it) “the centre does not hold”: things that they thought
they knew and techniques which could reach practical, common sense decisions no
longer worked. Such catastrophes can be natural or historical, such as great
shifts in the climate, volcanic eruptions that cause long periods of cold and
darkness, earthquakes that disfigure the known landscape or epidemics that not
only interfere or interrupt with everyday life but cause the loss of
specialists who can no longer pass on technical skills and wise sayings and of
elders who are the repositories of history and spiritual rituals. There are also wars, invasions and colonial
conquests, resulting in the dispersal or disappearance of large numbers of
people who are forced to migrate great distances, enter unfamiliar and hostile
territories and adapt and adopt new languages, modes of knowledge and patterns
of social connectivity. It is this blockage to what had seemed normal and
natural developments that pushes people back down an abyss of unknowing and
confused feelings that brings them to the point of prehistory, the time and
place where they have to begin more or less all over again.
These kind of shocking events—and they may last only a
short time or stretch over ten thousand years which cause blockages,
interruptions and disappearances in the archaeological and historical records
initiate changes in consciousness, culture and language that we can try to
explain in several different ways.
One way draws on the insights of psychoanalysis and
takes its name from a Freudian expression: Nachträglichkeit. In
the phenomenon of Nachträglichkeit a
person experiences some traumatic event, usually in early childhood, and this
shock disrupts the normal pattern of personality development, so that in all
subsequent life events the shape of the earliest crisis influences the way in
which the latest disturbance in felt, remembered and expressed. What makes this
process different from the notion that there is a general forward motion
through time and a consistent painful, humiliating and confusing engagement
with the present is that in Nachträglichkeit
the force of all subsequent reactions to the current crisis act on one another,
including the earliest recollections, no matter deeply hidden and encrypted
they are, as well as the present event which comes into focus in a distorted,
fragmented and apparently illogical way. In other words, the very blow that
puts the mind off balance and sees it regress to a much earlier stage in the
formation of recognizable images, feelings and ideas sets off a dynamic
transformation in the memory.
When groups of people are involved, be they a
close-knit family, small community or larger collection of individuals seeming
to share the same language and culture, their regression occurs in visible and
tangible ways. Including the performance of publically shared dreams or myths,
whether manifest in khora or choral
dances, gatherings at sacred sites to see and be fascinated by drawings,
carvings and altered landscape features so ancient as to seem like revelations
of another state of consciousness or world of cosmic forces altogether
different than they can recall. While no member of the group may have ever seen
or felt the power of such human markings, drawings, carvings or erected
standing stones, the response is a feeling of uncanniness, in the sense that
Freud gave to the term (unheimlich),
something at once vaguely and frighteningly familiar and yet shockingly new and
unrecognizable. The place is attractive and fascinating because it is and
becomes by the regressive visits sacred: sacred here in its strictly
etymological sense of being split between the known and the unknown, the holy
and the profane. People in their state of trauma are drawn to such sacred
places by a search for profound sounds that rumble through the tunnels under
the earth, streams and waterfalls that thunder down mountains and cliffs,
hillsides and standing rocks around which winds howl, and places where lights
flicker through crystal and other translucent and luminous materials.
It seems that the crisis induces at least in some
portion of the population, capacities of processing sensory experience from the
external world that have all but disappeared from normal neuronal development.
For example, a few individuals today do experience synesthesia, a condition in
which different physical sensations vibrate in accord with parts of the brain
that process other sensory experiences, so that they hear musical tones in
terms of colour so sense various textures in both visible and tangible form.
Usually such mixed co-ordinations of sense experiences disappear as the
infant’s neuronal connections come to the patterns supported by the culture of
the first care-givers and later siblings and adult inhabitants of the domestic
environment. Very likely, contemporary researchers have found, our most ancient
ancestors either continued to have those synthetic qualities or had larger
proportions of their population with such abilities.
We suggest that during epistemological crises more
than the usual number of people revert to these pre-modern melded sensations.
They are the so-called shamans who could hear and feel the humming of the
earth’s inner movements and react to the vibrations from distant rivers,
waterfalls and deep ocean currents.
When they alone or with representative members of the group (theoroi)
arrived at the sacred sites and see the marks, holes and carvings, they respond
by drawing over the images, deepen and expand the tracery of cupules and
reshape the statuary. It is as though they see what is hidden inside the rocks,
hear the voices of beings on the other side and create memory models of their
own engagement with the energies that seek to absorb.
From another discipline, that of Aby Warburg’s Kulturgeschichte or deep art history, we
draw a few other terms to help explain our discussion of prehistory and the
return to the time and place of new beginnings. Two of the two key terms
introduced by Warburg are Pathosformel and
Nachleben. Pathosformel
are passionately-charged or cathected images, word-clusters, gestural movements
and congeries of lines and colours that make it possible to speak the
unspeakable, picture the unimaginable, think the inconceivable and live in a
tolerable way with experiences that are otherwise unbearable.
Without such formulated means of expression and articulation the traumatized
individuals and groups can only continue to be assailed by frightful
anxiety-ridden and humiliating sensations without form or shape—or apparent
sense and meaning. From their first formulation, the manifested stresses and
strains allow the small group and the larger community not only to communicate
within themselves and across the boundaries of language and culture, but to
develop new skills, acquire greater knowledge and understand more accurately
and delicately who and what they are. These developments of passion-laden
formula also reverberate in the neurons of the brain and form patterns which
Warburg called engrammes. The history
of such variations and adjustments to historical circumstances forms the Nachleben (afterlife) of the primary
formulae.
Giorgio
Agamben comes closer to a more dynamic view of Aby Warburg’s tracing out the
transformation of such pre- and non-verbal experiences into words, images and
collective gestures.
These passionate formulae mark out the Nachleben
or afterlife (but not the strict renewal or renaissance, rather the
“transmission”)
of the original trauma through a punctuated series of iterations, never exactly
the same, moments of individual and group shock, crisis and re-creation.
As with the theory of oral formulaic epic poems and
stories propounded by Albert Lord and Milman Parry
and developed by their students, wherein performance and composition are one
and the same, so with the visual, tactile and performative arts. . Albert Lord and Milman Parry in their Singer of Tales (1960) based the theory
of formulaic oral poetry on field studies begun among the oral bards in the
former Yugoslavia who could chant for hours, or even days on end. The tales were
based on the warriors and leaders during the struggle between local Slavic
people and the invading Ottoman Turks for control of the Balkan countries. Lord
and Parry discovered that these usually uneducated, sometimes illiterate
singers could perform unbelievable feats of memory, stories that were ten or
more times the length of the two extant Homeric epics, Iliad and Odyssey. The two
scholars recorded these performances in
situ on tape, then transcribed them, and studied their content, style and
construction. They found that not only
did no performer ever repeat the same epic in exactly the same way each time he
was recorded, whether within weeks or years of each performance, but when asked
what the difference was, the teller could not comprehend what was asked. Similarly, when prompted to explain some
obscure phrase or allusion, he could not provide any answer and swore that each
version was exactly the same. More
shocking to Albert Lord was the fact that if he stopped a singer in the midst
of chanted epic to make a comment or ask a question and then told the performer
to carry on; the singer had to start the entire poem from the beginning or from
clearly demarcated episode in the lengthy epic.
Normally, pre-modern artists work within a community
of shared knowledge, a similar range of emotional displays and technical skills
and strategies passed down through the generations. Before attempting either to
represent what is seen, heard and felt from the external world, the artist
learns to copy previous works of art. Before seeking to express a unique and
private interior life of his or her own, the artist works to answer to the
explicit or implicit requirements of the patron, the audience and the
community. The verbal formulae found in epic poetry from around the world tends
to be made up not of individual lexical units (words, idioms, concepts) but of
sounds, tones and rhythms that embody or encrypt primary emotions, that is, the
very passions formulated in Warburg’s Pathosformel
and connected arcoss nerve synapses as engrammes.
Particular characters, events, situations and moral messages are subsequent
rationalizations of the more elementary energies in the formulaic expressions.
The narrator in the
mid-nineteenth-century novelist George Eliot’s The Lifted Veil puts it this way:
We learn words
by rote, but not their meaning; that
must be paid for with our life-blood, and printed in the subtle fibres of our
nerves.
The
gaps and traces of distortion remain available when subsequent trauma strikes,
the until-then normality of existence shudders, begins to fall apart and no
longer makes practical or emotional sense. Archaic memories come up into
consciousness again, detached particles of tradition reassemble themselves in
unfamiliar and yet satisfying new patterns of expression, and new
rationalizations are created to justify or deny the evident transformations.
In searching for the time and place of prehistory
returned to during times of profound shocks to the individual and the community
we come to the phenomenon of sub-microscopic visions and works of art. This is
found in the way early humans gouged out holes in rock faces and into the walls
of caves, these cupules being returned to again and again over short and long
intervals by which the hole, abyss or entry into other worlds were affected, on
the one hand, the exploration and attempt to communicate with a reality inside
or on the other side of the rock and cave wall; and on the other, to imagine oneself
entering into one’s own mind and there discovering the sources of imagination.
The early twentieth-century German-Jewish novelist Jacob
Wassermann described this process in regard to his own sources of memory and
inspiration:
…this inner
landscape , inherent in the soul and born with it into this world; it
determines the nature and color of dreams, of dreams in the broadest sense, and
all the other secret and unknown paths of the mind which constitute its
atmosphere and its abode, More than imagined pictures of sea and mountains, of
caves and parks and jungles, more than the paradisiacal ideal of immature
yearning, more than an escape and refuge from disappointment in the present,
this inner landscape is the crystal center of true life itself, the spot where
its laws are dictated and the source of its actual identity, of which our
so-called reality may be a mere reflection.
Taking
outer landscape to refer to both the natural and the human-shaped environment,
it is possible to see here a description of what has happened again and again
the return to prehistorical times and places and the attempt to formulate
passion-laden formulae that make life bearable.
In
another place, Wassermann expands on this idea and in a way applicable to the
developments of new creative thoughts possible after the resolution of the
inhibiting and disabling effects of an epistemological crisis:
I believe that
at bottom all production is an attempt at reproduction, at an approach to
things seen, heard and felt that have passed through to the other side of our
consciousness and now must be dug out piecemeal, in shattered fragments.
The
fascination with the small led thinkers in our own time to question what there
was about making things small, or imagining kingdoms of fairies and other tiny
creatures, especially more recently when museum curators put on a display of
seventeenth and eighteenth-century prayer beads, prayer nuts and other
intricately carved works of art made of boxwood, jade and crystal:
they found that when subject to electronic microscopic examination and digital
Magnetic instruments whole new layers of detail were revealed—not just beyond
the range of the naked eye but also of microscopes and magnifying glasses
available in the past. There are analogous traditions of
artists or specialists in the sacred from China and India during earlier
periods who also perfected techniques for such extremely delicate miniaturized
work of art, and without the use of magnifying or microscopes.
Already it has been shown that
prehistoric tool- and weapon-makers started to use smaller and smaller blades,
bladelets,
arrow-heads and other instruments to refine their hunting and fighting
techniques when climatic change removed large game from the territories they
usually roamed during the chase and when more fat and marrow needed to be
extracted from prey. Small objects being more portable, accurate and efficient,
they were favoured and in some ancient cultures microliths predominated for
many thousands of years without any significant changes in manufacture or use. To
engage in these activities, and to be trained by older experts, required new
kinds of skill: the delicate and subtle manipulation of hands, the intense focussing
of eyes and the deep concentration of attention of the mind were necessary—and
were reinforced by songs, stories and ritual gestures, thus also strengthening
bonds to the contextual community.
Here is one such instance from the
writings of Charles Fort who was fascinated by how little was actually known and hence how much needed to be exposed
through his satirical studies:
“Pygmy flints”
are tiny, prehistoric implements. Some of them are a quarter of an inch in
size. England, India, France, South Africa—they’ve been found in many parts of
the world—whether carved there or not. They belong high up in the froth of the
accursed; they are not denied, and they have not been disregarded; there is an
abundant literature upon this subject. One attempt to rationalize them, or
assimilate them, or take them into the scientific fold, has been the notion
that they were the toys of prehistoric children….Against the notion of toys,
the higher approximations is that where “pygmy flints” are found, all flints
are pygmies—at least so in India, where larger implements have been found in
the same place, there are separations by strata.
Most
technical studies of prehistoric tools categorized as microlithic artefacts
those which can be held in the hand, as opposed to standing stones, statues and
marked boulders and walls of caves. Several sub-categories of such very small
and hand-held prehistoric objects seem n either miniatures nor toy replicas. Brigit Katz reports on work done in the
Pacific North-West of the United States and Canada where among other whalebone
artefacts were found those that “were quite small—too small, in fact, to have
been used by adults.” Like the ‘pygmy’ prehistoric objects spoken
of by Fort, these Salish artefacts are not only small (‘tiny’) enough to be
held in the hand for purposes of scraping and chipping, but are actually too
small to be considered tools or weapons, such as spear-points, fishing hooks,
needles or beads, and the deliberate markings found on them may be only
discernible to the naked eye through extreme squinting. Jane Eva Baxter
suggests that “miniaturized instruments like the small atlatls
are unique because they straddle the boundary between work and play.” The mystery can be solved only by taking into
account other options, such as gaining control over an imaginary representation
of the world, exercising spiritual powers through mimetic rituals, generating
important new memories and releasing funerary energies by manipulation in a
micro-environment.
For
our ancestors to carry out these projects, more refinement and delicacy of
finger dexterity was needed, as well as greater focusing of the eyes for sustained
periods, and longer and deeper periods of mental concentration. Because of the
urgency of needed adjustments to changes in the external landscape, and in the
course of an abbreviated and punctuated evolutionary time—cut short by the way
we now know expression of genes could circumvent the long periods needed for
species to transform themselves to better hunters, gatherers, fishers and
farmers—a whole new patterning of brain neurons and supporting hormonal triggers
took place.
Nineteenth-century
explorers, adventurers and other travellers sometimes noted these two key
facets of the archaeological and anthropological sites they attempted to
describe and understand. Nevertheless, as the contemporary Canadian thinker
Dominic Forcier argues, standing at the edge of an abyss of mysticism and
irrationality:
The entirety of
your mind, all of “you”, from what you sense to what you do, all of your
thoughts and how they make you feel—your entire living essence, is brought
forth from the interactions between smaller living creatures, with distinct
minds of their own, like your living cells, communicating and acting together.
This
makes some sense within his general argument that the universe and all it contains
are infinite. His main examples come from Jewish Kabbalah and Muslim Sufism by
which the constituent letters of the respective scripts do more than articulate
narratives, arguments and descriptions of real and unreal worlds: they are shaped
objects, resonant markers of sound, tone and rhythm and triggers for energy
release and cathection. While we think there are better arguments of this kind
to be found in contemporary Jewish students of mystical word-play and
letter-combinations, such as Marc-Alain Ouaknin, we have taken for our model of
how the various psychoanalytical and psychohistorical processes work the two
books by Sergey Dolgopolski.
He shows how Talmudic argument and debates among ancient Jewish sages after the
Fall of Jerusalem in 69 C.E. and the Destruction of the Temple the following
year work to obviate chronological time and space and to make each learned
conversation among these early rabbis a way of returning to a time and place of
origins and renewal, a point where
differences are not resolved or reconciled but instead taken as the source of
energy for passing beyond the limits of history and generating a speculative
and creative force. Dolgopolski sees each such return as a moment of
transformation and reformation. What we do is to translate his terms into those
of psychohistory and the history of mentalities, or the juxtaposition and
intertwining of two landscapes, the internal and the external. Out of
resistance, blockage and catastrophe comes the new start to life and
understanding, as much for the ancient peoples who created rock art and standing
stones, as for the novelists, psychologists and archaeologists of our own time.
I have called this process midrashing, and here follow the words of Monica
Osborne:
A midrashic
story is not conceived as something that exists outside of the text; rather, it
is continuous with it. Midrash implies the failure of the sources from which it
comes to evoke a final answer. As metonymy, rather than metaphor—extension
rather than representation—midrash reveals the gaps it seeks to fill and
extends the primary text in which they exist. It reminds us of the voids that
precede it. And although narrative, a traditional representational mode, is the
device used to do this, we inevitably focus not only on the representation, but
also on the impetus for it: an absence.
The
situation of a person caught in the painful tensions of an epistemological
crisis can be seen here in a passage from one of Wassermann’s novels:
Every
time he began she struggled, but she always yielded to that force. She always
began by turning her face in horror
from her own past. But soon she was forced
by an implacable power to embrace that vision, and everything that she had
experienced, everything that had vanished, all that was desolate, turbid, dark,
and dangerous reappeared with an
incomparable vividness. It was her own life, and yet seemed another’s, who
was herself and yet someone else. It seemed to her that all those desolate,
turbid, dark, dangerous things began over
again, doubly terrible, with a
foreknowledge of each day’s disconsolate end.
Even earlier, in George Eliot’s mid-nineteenth-century novel Felix Holt: The Radical, set between the
great Reform Acts of the opening decades of that century, a time when again
things were falling apart and the centre was at the point of collapsing in on
itself. There is a description of the female protagonist feeling herself being
drawn into the middle of her life and all her experiences contracted to a tiny
internal time and place:
Here she moved
to and fro amongst the rose-coloured satin of chairs and curtains—the great
story of this world reduced for her to the little tale of her own existence—dull
obscurity everywhere, except where the keen light fell on the narrow track of
her own lot, wide only for a woman’s anguish
Eliot
in another place in the novel speaks about the inadequacy of contemporary
microscopes to see into this highly intense and intricate model of the modern
mind, and implies that the best instrument for seeing these responses to
personal and national crises is the novel itself. For this reason, we have
tried to trace out the constant return to points of crisis and difference in
the development of human consciousness, culture and language, from prehistoric
cupules, cave drawings and cliff-face markings through to classical miniature
portraits and intricately carved intaglios through to early modern prayer beads
and nuts with their sub-microscopic details and layers of concentration and
miniaturization of hidden internal worlds of experience.
Alessandra Campo, Nachträglichkeit:
Il contributo della psicoanalisi alla definizione di una filosofia del
processo. Università degli Studi di Roma Tre: Tesi di dottorato un
Filosofia e Teoria delle Scienze Umane, 2014/2015.
Barbara Baert, “The
Weeping Rock: Revisiting Niobe through Paragone, Pathosformel and
Petrification” Revista di Engramma
168 (2019) 1-21; online at
Niobe_through_Paragone_ Pathosformel and_ Petrification_in_Revista_di_Engramma
Robert Payson Creed. “A Context for the Study
of Oral Traditions” in Simms, The Word
Singers (1984) pp. 11-15 and “Beowulf
and the Language of Hoarding” in Papers of the Seventeenth Annual Conference
of the Center for Medieval and Early Renaissance Studies, ed. Charles L.
Redman (Binghamton, NY: State University of New York. 1989) pp. 155-167.
George Eliot, The Lifted Veil, p. 52. Emphasis in the
original.
Robert G. Bednarik, “The Global
Context of Lower Palaeolithic Indian Palaeoart” Man and Environment 24:2 (2009) 1-16; and Nicole
Boivin, “Rock Art and Rock Music: Petroglyphs of the South Indian
Neolithic” Antiquity 78; 299 (March
2004) pp. 38-53.
Robert G.
Elston and Steven L. Kuhn, eds. Thinking
Small: Global Perspective on Microlthization, Archaeological Papers of the American
Anthropological Association, No. 12. Arlington, VA, 2002.
Sergey Dolgopolski, The Open Past: Subjectivity and Remembering in the Talmud. New
York: Fordham University Press, 2013; and What
is Talmud? The Art of Disagreement. New York: Fordham University Press,
2009.